Ethical Intersections: Practical Theology’s Response to Harmful Beliefs

“How many witches have you killed today?”

This provocative question is often directed at Agnes, referencing her daily prayers, which she believes ward off or eliminate unseen malevolent forces. Her practice is not mere superstition but, as described by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen,[1] the culmination of beliefs shaped through her experiences. Agnes represents a segment of the Nigerian diaspora that maintains beliefs that appear to lack existential values and morality.

The environment we inhabit significantly influences how we present ourselves and interact with others, as we unconsciously adjust our behaviour through gestures, tone of voice, and even movement speed. However, when individuals such as Agnes find themselves in environments that are not conducive to their usual ways of adapting, they may resort to their belief systems to navigate the situation. In such circumstances, beliefs can either facilitate adaptation to the new culture or distance oneself from it.

What drives a diaspora to maintain beliefs that seem to starkly reject the society around them? For example, Agnes cooks Nigerian dishes for her family, shuns French cuisine, maintains daily online connections with Nigeria, and preserves her African identity through her hairstyle and clothing. However, she occasionally adapts her attire to French styles. These behaviours illustrate how deeply ingrained beliefs can lead individuals to distance themselves from aspects of their new culture that they find incompatible or threatening. In Agnes’s case, her beliefs serve as a protective mechanism, allowing her to maintain a sense of authenticity amidst pressures to conform.

The outside often conceals the personality and thoughts of the diaspora. Agnes’s beliefs about witchcraft indicate how much her French dress hides her true thoughts, colouring her interactions and perceptions of safety in her environment. Such beliefs not only isolate her but also perpetuate the constant need for spiritual warfare. Because Agnes believes that this world is dominated by evil, one must be careful when dealing with others. Once, she told me that a female witch can metamorphose into any animal. Had she seen a witch do that? Yes, she said. When? She was unable to provide a tangible response. Agnes has never seen a witch, but she believes they exist everywhere and can attack, even here, far from home.

How many Agneses are out there among Nigerian/African diasporas with beliefs that might be viewed as unacceptable and unethical in our contemporary world? African Pentecostals in the diaspora believe that witches possess supernatural abilities to travel anywhere to carry out their malevolent tasks under the cover of the night.[2] Thus, Christians must remain vigilant and prepared for spiritual warfare to combat the presence and activities of witches.

Home away from home becomes a reality when cultural norms, ideologies, mentalities, and individualised ideas of livelihood are interwoven to interpret lived experiences in the host nations. Where any of these are missing, the diaspora may think of themselves as lost and incomplete. Their embracing of beliefs, often socio-religious, enables them to handle any turmoil that they may experience.

These beliefs are more than personal convictions — they are potent forces that shape identity, behaviour, and community dynamics. Addressing harmful beliefs requires maintaining the individual agency and cultural integrity of those holding them. Practical theology and ethical considerations may help mitigate these negative impacts.

The Nature and Impact of Harmful Beliefs

In general, beliefs are harmful when they lead to negative consequences for individuals, groups, or society at large. These beliefs can be deeply ingrained in the social fabric and include child witchcraft accusations, witchcraft-related femicide, money ritual killings, caste discrimination, conversion therapy for LGBTQ+ individuals, child marriages, white supremacy, and honour killings. They can result in infringement of universal ethics and justification for harm without remorse.

People form beliefs based on their experiences and what their society tells them. If a person they respect or has authority tells them someone is suspected of possessing witchcraft powers, they tend to believe both the accusation and the existence of witches. As they process these beliefs internally, they become more embedded.

This discourse only examines the beliefs underpinning witchcraft-related accusations and their societal and individual repercussions. The imperative to confront and dismantle these harmful convictions cannot be overstated, especially given their capacity to inflict grave injustices and perpetuate cycles of violence.

Intersecting Practical Theology and Deontological Ethics

Practical theology applies to understanding and addressing harmful beliefs in real-world issues, emphasising action and reflection, and engaging with religious leaders from all faiths, communities, and secular practitioners to address ethical problems and to promote social injustice and well-being.[3]

Deontological ethics emphasises duty, rights, and the intrinsic moral value of actions, regardless of their outcomes.[4] In contrast, utilitarianism ethics focuses on maximising overall happiness for most people. In addressing harmful beliefs, especially witchcraft accusations, deontology, more than utilitarianism, safeguards those accused of witchcraft and helps curtail beliefs from spiraling out of control.

In the specific context of harmful beliefs that lead to witchcraft accusations, a deontological approach would prioritise the protection of individual rights, prohibition of harm, and promotion of justice and fairness. On the other hand, a utilitarian approach would weigh the potential consequences of addressing these harmful beliefs, considering their impact on the well-being of the community. Utilitarianism prompts an evaluation of the trade-off between the perceived benefits of witchcraft accusations for the community (such as maintaining cohesion or averting perceived threats) and the significant individual suffering and harm caused to those accused of witchcraft. For instance, if excommunicating an accused witch is believed to prevent further conflict within the community, it may be considered a justifiable action from a utilitarian perspective.

Does getting rid of the suspected witch bring about the desired communal harmony, or does it aggravate hostility among neighbours? When Martina Itagbor was lynched in 2023 by youths in the community,[5] did the community feel safer now with a so-called witch removed, or did it feel threatened because others could also be incorrectly accused and killed? It is not clear what actions are morally right or wrong under the utilitarianism framework, which instead requires assessing the benefits and harms of the decision here to excommunicate the accused witch.

Practical theology and deontological ethics provide an ethical framework that integrates religious insights with moral principles. Moreover, the application of practical theology can facilitate critical reflection on beliefs that underlie harmful religious practices and conduct that are incompatible with this ethical framework. The deontological tradition provides clear moral guidelines that can assist individuals in confronting damaging beliefs and ensuring that their beliefs are grounded in universal principles, such as justice, dignity, and respect for human rights. While practical theology emphasises community engagement in ethical decision-making, deontological ethics emphasise the protection of individuals’ rights and well-being through consideration of their perspectives and values.

Analysing Harmful Beliefs through Theological and Ethical Lenses

There is no singular definition of witchcraft in Nigeria/Africa due to its wide-ranging contextualisation. My workable definition of witchcraft, as generally perceived with a negative connotation, includes religious explanations for misfortune, revenge tactics against adversaries, political strategies for multiple reasons, social unrest campaigns intended as mischief-making tools, familial efforts against adversaries, intentional manipulation devices, and more.[6]

The beliefs surrounding witchcraft can lead to disruptions in family and community harmony. Child witchcraft accusations (CWA), in which accused children are seen as diabolic entities who possess witchcraft powers capable of creating misfortune such as barrenness, job loss, and death, is an extremely harmful phenomenon.[7] CWA is an endemic problem within close-knit settings. Only wwith an act such as murder or expulsion, does the general public become aware of it.

Some cases involving witchcraft accusations of children and adults have been widely publicised; nonetheless, accusations remain active across Nigeria, as well as elsewhere in Africa. Beliefs about witchcraft can maintain their grip on anyone, irrespective of whether they reside in Africa or the West. Such beliefs propel Agnes to pray regularly to keep anyone with witchcraft powers far away from her and her household. Likewise, the same beliefs push a non-violent youth to lynch victims like Itagbor to death.

How does an individual like Agnes come to such beliefs? Undoubtedly, the religious landscape—Christianity, Islam, and others—helps promote these ideologies. Especially in Christian communities, the intersection of religious practices and foundational tenets plays a pivotal role in shaping communal norms and values. Neo-Pentecostal churches (or Charismatic Christianity) focus on esoteric beliefs of witchcraft, demons, evil spirits, and the need for spiritual warfare to counter this. Here, discourse about evil and combating it appear paramount as God is said to have no blemishes or capable of wrongdoing,[8] and therefore, any of such emanate from the opposite of God, who is the Devil.

According to Afe Adogame,[9] African societies’ beliefs in malevolent spiritual agents like witches can be explained by historical context, cultural imagery, indigenous religious practices, and discussions around spiritual warfare within African Pentecostal churches—factors that continue to reinforce the idea that witches represent harmful entities that must be avoided with rituals and prayers. Neo-Pentecostalism in Nigeria has successfully integrated both positive and negative traditional local beliefs into its tenets, thus giving rise to deliverance practices as part of their doctrines. Neo-Pentecostal churches across Nigeria share one belief—unseen hostile forces such as witches and wizards prevent people from realising their goals; hence, spiritual confrontation becomes essential in living successfully.

Churches cannot exist without leaders who help spread accusations of witchcraft in many different forms, leading directly or indirectly. For example, Pastor Daniel Olukoya, the founder and owner of the megachurch Mountain of Fire and Miracles Ministries (MFM), focuses on witchcraft through preaching, sermons, publications, collective prayer programs, and deliverance programs. Members of MFM clearly understand the danger of witches and demons. They interpret challenges such as joblessness, illness, and relationship strain as spiritual battles that require action. By emphasising benevolent powers like God and angels, members take part in prayer rituals to combat malevolent forces and provide relief from spiritual turmoil they believe such entities cause.[10] From a deontological perspective, these sermons undermine the dignity of the accused. Human dignity lies in not having one’s rights taken away due to someone or some group deciding that their victim poses a threat or danger to peace or security. From a practical theological perspective, the duty of church leaders is to promote harmony, whether familial, communal, or societal.

Applying ethical frameworks to diverse beliefs through dialogue can promote mutual understanding through shared values, resulting in more inclusive societies that respect the diversity of beliefs.

Strategies for Change

The following are some strategies for combating harmful beliefs primarily related to witchcraft accusations:

• Ensure religious leaders have access to quality theological education so leaders can distinguish harmful superstitions from authentic teachings, inform their members about this distinction, and advocate for ethical considerations that promote human dignity.
• Integrate critical thinking, human rights education, and ethical decision-making practices into educational curricula and community workshops that challenge harmful beliefs, such as witchcraft.
• Organise interfaith dialogue to discuss harmful beliefs, foster mutual respect between community members, and engage local leaders on ethical considerations within teachings to protect individual rights and well-being within communities.
• Advocate for legislation against harmful witchcraft practices and prioritise individual rights over the general good.
• Establish community support programs guided by ethical principles to assist those affected by witchcraft beliefs.

As we progress, it is crucial to continue these conversations, engage in intercultural dialogue, and implement educational and policy initiatives that empower individuals to critically evaluate and transform harmful beliefs. By doing so, we not only enhance the lives of diaspora communities but also enrich the social fabric of our globalised world.

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References

[1] Martin Fishbein and Ajzen Icek, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behaviour: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1975), 216.

[2] Afe Adogame, Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2017), 433-444.

[3] Hans-Günter Heimbrock, “Practical Theology as Empirical Theology,” International Journal of Practical Theology (2011): 153-170.

[4] Jonathan Herring, Legal Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 13-14.

[5] Ike Uchechukwu, “Jungle Justice: 26 in police net over murder of Itagbor in C’River,” Vanguard (4 July 2023), accessed July 5, 2023, https://www.vanguardngr.com/2023/07/jungle-justice-26-in-police-net-over-murder-of-itagbor-in-criver/.

[6] Claire P. Ayelotan, Transnational Yoruba (Nigerian) Pentecostalism, Child Witchcraft, and Deliverance (PhD Thesis, University of Roehampton, London, 2021).

[7] Ibid.

[8] Nel Noddings, Women and Evil (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 6.

[9] Adogame, Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, 433-444.

[10] Ibid, 443.

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© Claire Princess Ayelotan, 2024.

This work is licensed under Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0).

Cover Image: Created by the author.